NCERT Solutions Class 12 Psychology Chapter 8 Psychology and Life
NCERT Solutions Class 12 Psychology Chapter 8 Psychology and Life: National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) Class 12 Psychology Chapter 8 Solutions – Psychology and Life.
Board |
NCERT |
Class |
12 |
Subject |
Psychology |
Chapter |
8 |
Chapter Name |
Psychology and Life |
Topic |
Exercise Solutions |
Chapter 8. Psychology and Life
Review Questions
1.) What do you understand by the term ‘environment’? Explain the different perspectives to understand the human-environment relationship.
The word “environment” refers to all that is in our immediate vicinity, including the physical, social, professional, and cultural environments. In general, it refers to all external influences to which people have a reaction.
There are several perspectives on the human-environment interaction, which mostly depends on how people view this relationship. A psychologist by the name of Stokols (1990) outlines three techniques that may be used to characterise the interaction between humans and their environment.
(a) The minimalist viewpoint holds that the physical environment has little to no bearing on how people behave, their health, or their general well-being. Humans and the natural world coexist as complementary elements.
(b) The instrumental approach contends that people primarily use the physical environment for their comfort and well-being. The majority of human impacts on the environment are mostly instrumental in nature.
(c) The spiritual viewpoint alludes to the idea that nature should be appreciated and valued rather than exploited. It suggests that people understand their interdependence on the environment, i.e., that people can only live and be content as long as the ecosystem is preserved as healthy and natural.
The spiritual viewpoint is supported by the traditional Indian understanding of the environment.
2.) “Human beings affect and are affected by the environment”. Explain this statement with the help of examples.
In order to meet their requirements physically and for other reasons, humans also have an impact on the natural world. Every built environment sample illustrates how people have influenced their surroundings. For instance, the human being began modifying the natural environment to create something known as “houses” so that she or he may have a place to live. Some of these human behaviours endanger and hurt the environment, as well as oneself in many ways.
Humans, for instance, utilise products like refrigerators and air conditioners that release chemicals into the air (such CFCs or chlorofluorocarbons), which over time may contribute to bodily illnesses like various types of cancer. Smoking is known to harm the air we breathe, and burning plastic or metal objects has terrible environmental consequences. Deforestation, or the removal of trees, can interfere with both the carbon and water cycles. This might gradually change a region’s rainfall pattern, causing more soil erosion and desertification. The harmful physical and psychological effects of this type of pollution don’t appear to bother the industries that release effluents and pump this untreated sewage into rivers.
3.) What is noise? Discuss the effects of noise on human behaviour.
Noise is defined as any audible stimulus that is obtrusive, grating, or unpleasant to the ear. We all know from experience that noise, especially noise that lasts for a long time, is uncomfortable and makes people feel bad. A extended duration of noise exposure might damage your hearing. In addition, because noise makes it difficult to focus, it has a detrimental impact on mental activity.
There are three aspects of noise that might affect how well a task is performed: its intensity, predictability, and controllability. Systematic investigation on how noise affects people reveals the following:
- Noise, whether loud or mild, has little effect on performance when the activity at hand is a straightforward mental one, like adding numbers. In these circumstances, individuals ‘get acclimated’ to the cacophony.
- Noise does not interfere with performance if the work being done is really fascinating. This is so that the person can focus entirely on the activity at hand and tune out outside noise due of the nature of the task. This might possibly be an adaption of some sort.
- The noise is seen as more distressing when it occurs intermittently and in an unexpected manner than when it occurs consistently.
- When a task takes complete focus or is challenging, the degree of task performance is reduced by severe, unexpected, and unmanageable noise.
- When a person has discretion over whether or not to tolerate noise, there are less mistakes made when doing tasks.
- In terms of its emotional consequences, noise that is louder above a particular threshold can irritate people and interrupt their sleep. If the noise can be controlled or is required for the person’s job, these impacts are also mitigated. However, ongoing exposure to intrusive and irritating noise can be detrimental to one’s mental well-being. These findings suggest that the ability of people to adjust to noise, the nature of the work being performed, and whether or not noise is predictable and controlled all have a role in the stressful effects of noise, in addition to its high or low intensity.
4.) What are the salient features of crowding? Explain the major psychological consequences of crowding.
The majority of us are familiar with crowds, which are enormous, loosely organised groups of people that briefly assemble without any specific purpose. For instance, when a renowned person unexpectedly arrives on the road, those who are there at the moment frequently assemble around to see the individual. Crowding, however, refers to something else. It describes a sensation of physical restraint brought on by having too many people or objects close to us, as well as occasionally a lack of seclusion. The feeling of being crowded is a person’s response to the presence of many people in a small location. People in that circumstance experience stress when this number exceeds a particular threshold. In this regard, crowdedness is an additional illustration of an environmental stressor.
The following characteristics of a crowded situation exist: Uncomfortable feelings, a loss or reduction in privacy, an unfavourable perception of the environment around them, and a sense of controllessness in social situations are all possible reactions.
Only when we consider the repercussions of crowding can we fully comprehend the stressful impacts of crowding.
- Abnormal behaviour and hostility may result from crowding and excessive density. This was demonstrated many years ago in a rat research. At first, a limited number of these creatures were kept in an enclosure. They began acting aggressively and in an unexpected way, including biting the tails of other rats, as their number grew inside this little area. The animals’ violent behaviour eventually became so severe that many of them perished, reducing the number of creatures in the cage. A rise in violent crime has occasionally been observed to coincide with population growth among humans as well.
- Overcrowding has negative effects on memory and emotional stability and lowers performance on demanding cognitive tasks. Those who are accustomed to crowded environments experience these negative consequences to a lesser level.
- Children who grow up in crowded homes fare worse academically. In comparison to children growing up in non-crowded families, they also have a reduced willingness to continue working on a task if they are unsuccessful at it. They have more disagreements with their parents and receive less help from their relatives. The type of social contact someone engages in affects how they will respond to crowding. For instance, if the encounter takes place during a joyful social event like a party or public celebration, the presence of many people in the same physical location could not even be stressful. Instead, it could trigger gratifying emotional responses. At the same time, congestion has an impact on how people connect with one another.
- Individuals vary in both the severity of their responses to crowding and the type of these responses.
5.) Why is the concept of ‘personal space’ important for human beings? Justify your answer with the help of an example.
A high density environment has an impact on personal space, or the cosy physical space one often prefers to retain around oneself. Personal space is constrained in a crowded setting, which can also contribute to adverse crowding reactions. There are several instances of humans interacting with their physical surroundings in terms of space. Humans like to keep a specific physical distance from others they are dealing with in social circumstances. The term “interpersonal physical distance” refers to this and is a subset of the idea of “personal space,” which refers to the physical space we want to have all around us. The loss of personal space is one of the causes of the adverse reactions to crowding that were previously discussed. Personal space can vary from person to person, in different settings and places, and across cultural barriers. Some average distances between civilizations have been observed.
The following justifies the significance of the idea of personal space. As an environmental stressor, it first explains many of the detrimental impacts of crowding. It also provides information on social interactions. For instance, two people who are seated or standing near to one another are assumed to be buddies or linked. When you go to the school library, you want to sit close to your friend if they are at a table and there is space available.However, even if the seat next to a stranger at the table is vacant, it is doubtful that you will choose to sit next to them. Thirdly, it provides us some insight into how physical space might be altered to lessen stress or discomfort in social circumstances, or to improve and enhance social interaction.
6.) What do you understand by the term ‘disaster’? List the symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder. How can it be remedied?
Human behaviour is the cause of environmental stresses including noise, various types of pollution, and congestion. Natural disasters, on the other hand, are tense situations that arise as a result of nature’s wrath, i.e. as a result of environmental disruptions. Natural catastrophes frequently occur in the form of earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, cyclones, and volcanic eruptions. There are examples of other catastrophes as well, including wars, industrial mishaps like the spill of radioactive or toxic substances in industrial plants, or epidemics (e.g., the plague that affected some parts of our country in 1994). However, despite the fact that their impacts can be just as catastrophic as those of natural catastrophes, wars and epidemics are human-caused occurrences.
These occurrences are referred regarded as “disasters” because they are unavoidable, frequently occur without prior notice, and do significant harm to both human lives and property. Sadly, they can also result in post-traumatic stress disorder, a psychiatric condition (PTSD). The early response to a calamity is frequently one of disorientation, and this condition contains the following characteristics. People need some time to fully comprehend the impact of the calamity on them. They could even pretend to themselves that nothing bad has truly transpired. The bodily responses come after the instant reaction.
- Among the sufferers, physical reactions might include physiological tiredness even in the absence of physical activity, trouble sleeping, a change in eating habits, a rise in heart rate and blood pressure, and an easy tendency to startle.
- Emotional responses, such as grief and fear, irritability, anger (“Why should this happen to me? “), guilt for having survived while a member of the family died, self-blame, and lack of interest in even mundane activities.
- Cognitive effects including anxiety, trouble concentrating, decreased attention span, disorientation, memory loss, or unwelcome vivid recollections (or nightmares of the event).
- Social responses, such as social isolation, disagreement with others, and frequent conflicts with even close friends and family members.
Surprisingly, many survivors who are experiencing significant emotional reactions to stress may actually aid in the healing process. These people may gain a positive view on life as a result of having gone through the experience, survived it, and managed to stay alive. They may then, with compassion, impart this outlook to other survivors. These responses could last for a very long period, possibly for the rest of your life. However, with the right counselling and medical care, PTSD may be treated, at least to the point where the victims are encouraged and supported in making a fresh start in life. Special consideration and care should be given to the impoverished, mothers who have lost every member of their family, and orphaned kids who have survived natural calamities.
7.) What is pro-environmental behaviour? How can the environment be protected from pollution? Suggest some strategies.
Pro-environmental behaviour encompasses both behaviours intended to save the environment from harm and to advance a safe environment. Reducing air pollution by maintaining cars in excellent condition or switching to non-fuel driven vehicles, as well as quitting smoking, are some proactive measures to preserve the environment from pollution.
- Reducing noise pollution by maintaining low noise levels, for as by forbidding pointless roadside honking or enforcing restrictions on loud music during specific hours.
- Controlling garbage disposal in a sensible manner, for as by promoting the separation of biodegradable waste from nonbiodegradable waste or composting of kitchen waste. It is necessary to establish these habits both at home and in public settings. The handling of hospital and industrial waste needs special consideration.
- Planting trees and caring for them while keeping in mind that plants and trees with negative health impacts shouldn’t be planted.
- Refusing to use plastics in any way to cut down on harmful wastes that damage the earth, water, and air.
- Reducing consumer product packaging that isn’t biodegradable.
- Laws governing building that go against the best environmental design, particularly in metropolitan areas.
8.) How is ‘poverty’ related to ‘discrimination’? Explain the major psychological effects of poverty and deprivation.
The most widely recognised socio-psychological definition of poverty is that it is a state in which there is a shortage of basic requirements in the context of unequal income distribution in society.
Discrimination is an issue that has been brought about by social disadvantage brought on by caste and poverty. Discrimination in the context of poverty refers to actions that distinguish between the wealthy and the poor, favouring the wealthy and privileged over the poor and the disadvantaged. Social contact, education, and job are three areas where this disparity may be apparent. Therefore, even when those who are poor or disadvantaged have the capacity, they are denied access to opportunities that the rest of society takes for granted. Poor children are not given the opportunity to attend reputable schools, receive quality medical care, or find gainful jobs. Because to social disadvantage and prejudice, the poor are unable to improve their socioeconomic situation on their own, which only makes them worse. In other words, poverty and prejudice are linked in a way that makes the latter both a cause and an effect of the former. The social injustice of discrimination based on caste or poverty must be ended.
Major psychological effects of poverty and deprivation
- The impoverished have a strong need for reliance and low accomplishment motivation when it comes to motivation. In place of talent or effort, they attribute their success to chance or fate. They generally think that external forces, rather than internal ones, govern the events in their life.
- The impoverished and disadvantaged are more likely to have low self-esteem, high levels of anxiety and introversion, and a focus on the present rather than the future. They believe that the future is too unclear, therefore they favour lesser benefits now over greater ones later. They suffer a loss of identity, a sense of unfairness, helplessness, and hopelessness.
- In terms of social behaviour, the underprivileged and poorer groups show hostility against the rest of society.
- Long-term deprivation has been proven to have negative impacts on cognitive functioning, with individuals who are very deprived doing worse than those who are less depleted on tasks including categorization, verbal reasoning, time perception, and visual depth perception. It has also been made clear that the impact of deprivation results from the fact that children’s upbringing environments, whether affluent or poor, have an impact on their cognitive development, which is reflected in how well they do on cognitive tasks.
- In terms of mental health, there is an undeniable link between mental illnesses and lack of resources or poverty. When compared to the wealthy, the poor are more prone to experience specific mental disorders. This may be because they are always concerned about getting by, feel insecure, or lack access to medical care, particularly for mental illnesses. In fact, it has been proposed that depression may be a mental illness that mostly affects the underprivileged. Additionally, many who are impoverished feel hopeless and as like they have lost their identity, as if they do not belong in society. They therefore experience emotional and adjusting issues.
9.) Distinguish between ‘instrumental aggression’ and ‘hostile aggression’. Suggest some strategies to reduce aggression and violence.
Hostile aggression and instrumental aggression are distinguished from one another. When someone is being aggressive intentionally, they are trying to get something from the other person. For instance, a bully may hit a new kid at school in order to steal their chocolate. Hostile aggression is when the attacker expresses hostility against the target with the purpose of hurting her or him, even if the aggressor has no ulterior motives. For instance, a criminal may assault a member of the public who called the police after mentioning him.
Strategies to reduce aggression and violence.
- It’s especially important for parents and instructors to be mindful not to praise or encourage any kind of hostility. It’s also necessary to alter the way discipline is enforced through punishment.
- There should be far less opportunity to watch and mimic the aggressive models’ behaviour. It is especially important to avoid portraying aggressiveness as heroic behaviour as this might lead to learning via observation.
- Because they might irritate some societal segments, poverty and social injustice may be major contributors to hostility. Implementing social justice and equality in society may aid in lowering anger levels, which will at least partially restrain violent impulses.
- In addition to these tactics, it’s critical to instil a pro-peace mindset at the level of the community or society. Along with reducing hostility, we ought to actively promote and uphold peace.
10.) Discuss the psychological impact of television viewing on human behaviour. How can its adverse consequences be reduced? Explain.
Television has without a doubt been a beneficial byproduct of technical advancement. However, both good and negative impacts have been noted in terms of its psychological influence on people. The effects of television viewing on cognitive functions and social behaviour have been the subject of several research investigations, particularly in Western societies. Their findings indicate a variable influence. Children have been the subject of the majority of study studies since it is believed that kids are more susceptible than adults to the effects of television.
The first reason is that television offers a lot of information in a visually appealing format, for which it has become an effective teaching tool.Given how enticing the programmes are, children watch them for extended periods of time. As a result, they read and write less, and they engage in less outside activities like playing.
Second, watching television may have an impact on children’s ability to concentrate, creativity, understanding, and social interactions. On the one hand, there are excellent programmes that emphasise positive attitudes toward others, provide useful information, and teach youngsters how to design and make certain objects. However, these programmes could distract young viewers and limit their ability to concentrate on a single goal.
Third, it is said that viewing television has led to the development of a consumerist mindset in both adults and children. There are many things being offered, thus it is only natural for the spectator to become distracted.
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