NCERT Solutions Class 11 Psychology Chapter 2 Methods of Enquiry in Psychology
NCERT Solutions Class 11 Psychology Chapter 2 Methods of Enquiry in Psychology: National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) Class 11 Psychology Chapter 2 Solutions – Methods of Enquiry in Psychology.
Board |
NCERT |
Class |
11 |
Subject |
Psychology |
Chapter |
2 |
Chapter Name |
Methods of Enquiry in Psychology |
Topic |
Exercise Solutions |
Review Questions
1.) What are the goals of scientific enquiry?
The objectives of psychological research include the description, prediction, explanation, and control of behaviour as well as the objective application of the information so produced. Let’s attempt to comprehend what these phrases signify.
Description: In a psychological research, we try to be as exact as possible when describing a behaviour or a phenomena. This makes it easier to separate a certain behaviour from other behaviours. For instance, the researcher can be curious about how pupils study. Study habits can include a wide range of behaviours, such as routinely attending all of your classes, turning in assignments on time, creating your study schedule, studying in accordance with the schedule, reviewing your work every day, etc. There could be further detailed descriptions within a given category. The researcher must explain what they mean by “study habits” in their own words. A specific behaviour that is necessary for comprehending the description must be recorded.
Prediction: Prediction of behaviour is the second objective of scientific investigation. You can learn the link between one type of behaviour and other behaviours, events, or occurrences by precisely understanding and describing the behaviour. Then you may make a prediction that, given certain circumstances, this certain behaviour might happen within a specified margin of error. For instance, based on research, a researcher can determine a strong correlation between the quantity of study time and success in various topics. If you discover later that a certain child spends more time studying, you may anticipate that the child will likely perform well on the exam. The more people being monitored, the more accurate the prediction gets.
Explanation: The third objective of psychological research is to identify the causes or behavioural determinants. The causes of behaviour are what psychology researchers are most curious about. What circumstances prevent a specific behaviour from happening, too. What, for instance, causes certain kids to pay greater attention in class? Why do some kids spend less time studying than others? In order to establish a cause-and-effect link between two variables (things or events), this purpose is concerned with determining the determinants or antecedent circumstances (i.e., factors that lead to the specific behaviour) of the behaviour being researched.
Control: If you can identify the cause of a given behaviour, you may alter the circumstances that led up to it to occur. Making a certain behaviour occur, lowering it, or improving it are three things that fall under the category of control. For instance, you might decide to keep the amount of time allotted to studying the same, cut it down, or even increase it. Control is demonstrated well by the modification of behaviour that psychological therapy has on people.
Application: Improving people’s quality of life is the ultimate purpose of scientific investigation. In many contexts, psychological research is done to find solutions to issues. Because of these initiatives, psychologists are quite concerned about people’s quality of life. Applications of yoga and meditation, for instance, can lower stress and boost productivity. Additionally, new hypotheses or constructions are developed through scientific inquiry, which stimulates additional study.
2.) Describe the various steps involved in conducting a scientific enquiry.
Scientific research employs a methodical process or processes of inquiry. It involves the subsequent actions:
(1) Conceptualizing a Problem: When a researcher chooses a theme or issue for investigation, the process of scientific inquiry gets underway. Then, the researcher sharpens the emphasis and formulates certain research concerns or questions. On the basis of an examination of prior studies, observations, and personal experiences, this is done. For instance, you read earlier that a researcher was curious to look at how pupils study. To do this, s/he may first define several aspects of study habits before determining whether s/he is interested in study habits practised at home or in class.
After identifying the issue, the researcher moves further by formulating a speculative solution to the issue, known as a hypothesis.
(2) Data Collection: Data collection is the second stage of scientific inquiry. Creating a research design, or a roadmap for the whole study, is necessary for data collecting. It necessitates making judgements about the following four aspects: (a) study participants, (b) data gathering techniques, (c) research instruments, and (d) data collection procedure. The researcher must choose the participants (or informants) in the study based on the nature of the investigation. Participants might include kids, teens, teachers, administrators, patients, factory employees, or any other group of people where the phenomena under inquiry is common. The second choice has to do with the kind of data gathering techniques that will be used, including case studies, experimentation, correlation, and observation. The researcher must choose the best instruments (such as an interview schedule, an observation plan, a questionnaire, etc.) for gathering data. The researcher also determines how the tools must be used to gather data (i.e. individual or group). The actual collecting of data comes next.
(3) Making Inferences: The next stage is to analyse the data that have been obtained using statistical techniques to determine what the data signify. This may be done by employing many statistical techniques as well as graphical representations (such as the creation of a pie chart, bar diagram, cumulative frequencies, etc.). Verifying a hypothesis and coming to the appropriate conclusions are the goals of analysis.
(4) Revision of Research Findings: The researcher may have started the study with the assumption that there is a connection between children’s aggressiveness and their exposure to violence on television. He or she must determine if the findings corroborate this theory. If they do, the pre existing theory or hypothesis is supported. If not, the researcher will adjust the hypothesis or theory or propose an alternative, retest it using fresh data, and then make conclusions that might be confirmed by subsequent researchers. As a result, research is an ongoing effort.
3.) Explain the nature of psychological data.
In contrast to other sciences, psychological facts are unique. Psychologists get a variety of data from many sources using a range of techniques. Information, often known as data (plural: datum), relates to people’s secret or overt behaviour, subjective experiences, and thought processes.
In psychological research, data are a crucial component. In actuality, they provide us a chance to check or refute our thoughts, hunches, concepts, etc. and they somewhat resemble reality.
Data are not autonomous entities, as should be clear. They have a context, and they are related to the theory and technique that control the data collecting process. In other words, information is contingent on the people involved, the situation’s physical or social setting, and the moment the behaviour takes place.
The kind and calibre of data are also influenced by the technique of data collection (survey, interview, experiment, etc.) and the characteristics of respondents (individual or group, young or elderly, male or female, rural or urban, etc.).
The fact that data does not, by itself, communicate about reality is another crucial aspect of data. You must draw conclusions from the facts. The data is given significance by the researcher by being placed in the appropriate context.
4.) How do experimental and control groups differ? Explain with the help of an example.
One or more experimental groups and one or more control groups are typically used in experiments. A group that is subjected to the modification of an independent variable is known as an experimental group. The control group serves as a comparison group and is handled identically to the experimental group with the exception that it does not contain the altered variable.
For instance, there were two experimental groups and one control group in the research by Latane and Darley. The research participants were arranged in three distinct types of rooms. In one of the rooms, no one was there (control group). In the other two rooms, there were two persons seated (experimental groups). While smoke entered the room, one of the two experimental groups was instructed to stay still. The other group received no instructions. After the experimental manipulation had occurred, the performance of the control group was evaluated in terms of reporting smoke and compared to that of the experimental group. It was discovered that the participants in the control group reported the emergency situation in the greatest number, followed by those in the first experimental group, where participants received no instructions, and the second experimental group (consisting of confederates), who reported the emergency situation in the least amount.
It should be emphasised that in an experiment, other circumstances are maintained constant for both the experimental and control groups, with the exception of the experimental manipulation.
5.) A researcher is studying the relationship between speed of cycling and the presence of people. Formulate a relevant hypothesis and identify the independent and dependent variables.
An event or stimulus that can be quantified and is not constant, i.e., it can change from context to context, is referred to as a variable.
An independent variable is one that the scientist doing the experiment modifies to get the intended result. On the other side, the result of the experiment serves as the dependent variable. Because it depends on the independent variable as well as other variables that are present during the course of the experiment, the dependent variable is so named.
The experiment in the example above deals with the pace of riding and the presence of people around. The riding pace is the only unrelated factor in this situation. The researcher can adjust this variable to accommodate for various cycle rates and to track the effects of each event. The existence of individuals around is the dependent variable in this situation. This occurrence is entirely reliant on the independent variable and is beyond the researcher’s control. The quantity of individuals present has a direct impact on how quickly the cycle moves.
6.) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of experimental method as a method of enquiry.
In a controlled context, experiments are often carried out to determine the cause-and-effect relationship between two sets of events or factors. It is a meticulously planned process in which adjustments are made to one component while holding other related parameters constant and the impact on another factor is assessed. In the experiment, the altered or controlled event is the cause. Effect is the modification in behaviour brought on through manipulation.
A well-designed experiment has the advantage of being able to give, comparatively speaking, strong proof of a cause-and-effect link between two or more variables. However, tests are frequently carried out in a tightly regulated laboratory setting. They only mimic circumstances that occur in the real world, in this sense. For this reason, they regularly face criticism. Results from the trials might not generalise well or relate to actual circumstances. They have little external validity, in other words. The fact that it is not always possible to explore a given topic empirically is another drawback of the laboratory experiment. For instance, it would be unethical to starve anyone in an experiment to explore the impact of dietary deprivation on children’s IQ levels. The third issue is that it is challenging to understand and manage all the important factors.
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7.) Dr. Krishnan is going to observe and record children’s play behaviour at a nursery school without attempting to influence or control the behaviour. Which method of research is involved? Explain the process and discuss its merits and demerits.
Dr. Krishnan would monitor and document children’s play behaviour using the non-participant observation technique without seeking to change or regulate the behaviour. Without the kids realising it, he would sit in a corner and watch how they behaved. He would observe how kids behaved while playing, how they interacted with one another, and how they responded whether they won or lost. In a file, he would compile all the information, which he would then compare to the conclusion and hypothesis.
The observation approach has the benefit of allowing the researcher to see individuals and their behaviour in a realistic setting as it happens. However, the observation approach is labor- and time-intensive and subject to the bias of the observer. Our opinions of a person or an event are shaped by our values and preconceptions. You’re probably aware with the proverb, “We view things as we are, not as they are.” Due to our prejudices, we could perceive information differently from what the participants intended.
As a result, the observer should document the behaviour as it occurs rather than interpreting it at the moment of the observation.
8.) Give two examples of the situations where survey method can be used. What are the limitations of this method?
The following are two scenarios in which a survey method might be applied:
- To determine which product categories a specific income group uses the most.
- To determine which candidates are well-liked during an election in a particular location.
The survey has certain restrictions. First, people could offer false information as a result of memory gaps or as a result of a desire to keep their true beliefs about a certain topic from the researcher.
Second, occasionally people will respond in a way they believe the researcher wants to hear.
9.) Differentiate between an interview and a questionnaire.
Interview:
- A face-to-face conversation between two persons is called an interview.
- They might be organised or unorganised.
- The questions in interviews can be changed or added.
- By asking a counter-question and observing non-verbal cues, the interviewer can go further.
- They are arbitrary in character.
- It is not a useful tool for people who find it difficult to communicate vocally.
- Having a very trained interviewer is necessary.
Questionnaire:
- It comprises of a form with a number of questions on it, and the responders themselves are responsible for filling in the responses.
- Every questionnaire has a set format.
- More information than what is stated in the inquiry cannot be known.
- They are quite impartial.
- The questionnaire may occasionally be completed by someone other than the designated subject.
- On occasion, it is impossible to answer a question.
- They can be given to a lot of individuals simultaneously.
- A person with less experience can perform the interpretation.
10.) Explain the characteristics of a standardised test.
A standardised exam has the following qualities:
Objectivity: The idea behind objectivity is that if two or more researchers administer the same group of people to a psychological test, the findings they each arrive at for each person in the group ought to be nearly the same.
Reliability: When discussing a test’s reliability, we are referring to how consistently a person does on the same exam when given two chances to take it. For instance, you may administer the exam to a group of students today, and then administer it to the same group of students once more, let’s say after 20 days.
Validity: The phrase “does the test measure what it promises to measure” is used to describe the accuracy of a test. If you have created a test to evaluate a person’s arithmetic skills, for instance, you must decide if the exam is evaluating a person’s language skills or math skills.
Norms: A test is regarded as being standardised when norms are created for it. The term “norm” refers to the group’s typical performance.
11.) Describe the limitations of psychological enquiry.
Lack of a True Zero Point: Measurements in the physical sciences begin at zero. For instance, if you wanted to know how long the table was, you could measure it from zero and claim it was three feet long. The genuine zero point in psychological assessments does not exist. No one in our planet, for instance, has no intelligence. We are all intelligent to some extent. Psychologists commence by randomly designating a point as zero and moving on. Because of this, the results of psychological investigations do not have absolute worth; rather, they have relative value.
2.) Relative Nature of Psychological Tools: Psychological tests are created with the key elements of a certain context in mind. For instance, a test designed for urban students can include questions that require knowledge of the stimuli present in the urban environment, such as multistory buildings, aeroplanes, metro trains, etc. Children that live in tribal places might be more at ease with objects that describe their nature and fauna, therefore such a test is not appropriate for use with them. Similar to this, a test created in a Western nation could or might not be appropriate in an Indian one. In order to apply such tests effectively, they must be properly changed and altered in light of the specifics of the situation.
3.) Subjective Interpretation of Qualitative Data: Since both the researcher and the source of the data must interpret the data, the results of qualitative studies tend to be very subjective. The interpretations might differ from person to person. Therefore, it is frequently advised that more than one researcher conduct the fieldwork in qualitative investigations. At the conclusion of the study, the investigators should debate their findings and come to a consensus before assigning the data a meaning. In fact, it is best if the responders take part in this process of meaning-making as well.
12.) What are the ethical guidelines that a psychologist needs to follow while conducting a psychological enquiry?
When performing a psychological investigation, a psychologist must adhere to the following ethical principles:
Voluntary Participation: In accordance with this idea, you should provide the subjects of your research project the option to decide whether or not they wish to participate in it.
Informed consent: It’s important that participants in a research be informed of all the procedures that will be used during the inquiry. In order to guarantee that potential participants are able to make an informed decision about their involvement in the study, it is necessary to present them with this information prior to the collection of their data in accordance with the idea of informed consent.
After the research is finished, the participants are provided any further information they require to fully enhance their understanding of the research. If there was any aspect of fraud involved in the research, this is of the highest importance. To ensure that study participants leave the institution in the same psychological and physical state in which they arrived, the debriefing phase serves this aim.
Sharing the Study’s Findings: In psychological research, we first collect data from the subjects of the study, then we go back to our own offices to analyse the data and draw findings. The participants in the study must be told the results of the inquiry, thus the researcher must comply with this need.
Confidentiality of Data Source: The participant’s right to privacy must always be maintained. By safeguarding the secrecy of the data they provided, the researcher has a duty to defend their right to privacy. This information should only be used for study purposes; under no circumstances should it be distributed to anybody else who might be interested in the subject.
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