NCERT Solutions Class 12 Psychology Chapter 2 Self and Personality
NCERT Solutions Class 12 Psychology Chapter 2 Self and Personality: National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) Class 12 Psychology Chapter 2 Solutions – Self and Personality.
Board | NCERT |
Class | 12 |
Subject | Psychology |
Chapter | 2 |
Chapter Name | Self and Personality |
Topic | Exercise Solutions |
1.) What is self? How does the Indian notion of self differ from the Western notion?
A person’s conscious experiences, ideas, thoughts, and feelings about themselves or themselves are collectively referred to as their “self.” At both the personal and societal levels, an individual’s existence is defined by these experiences and ideas.
Self may be thought of as both a subject and an object. The self is being portrayed as a both “knower” and something that may be “known” when you declare, “I know who I am.” The ego actively participates in the process of understanding oneself as a subject (actor). The self becomes recognized and is observed as an object (consequence).
The approach of depicting the boundary between self and other is the most significant difference between Indian and Western perspectives. This boundary looks to be comparatively permanent from the Western perspective. The fluctuating nature of this barrier, on the other hand, defines the Indian conception of self. As a result, at some point, we get larger and merge with the universe or incorporate other people. However, the next appears to be a complete disconnection from it and a full concentration on the individual self.The Western perspective appears to contain distinct contrasts between self and other, man and nature, and subjective and objective reality. The Indian perspective does not draw such sharp distinctions.The self and the group are two distinct entities with distinct bounds in Western society. The group’s individual members each retain their individualism.The self and one’s own group are rarely divided in Indian culture; instead, both continue to coexist in harmony. On the contrary hand, they frequently maintain a barrier in Western culture.Probably due to this, many Western civilizations are labelled individualistic, whilst many Eastern cultures are considered collectivistic.
2.) What is meant by delay of gratification? Why is it considered important for adult development?
Humans have the ability to control their behaviour in any way they desire. We frequently opt to put off or postpone satisfying certain desires.Life often calls for us to exert self-control and resistance to external forces. This is made possible by something that is referred to as “willpower.”Self-control is the ability to delay or defer satisfying needs. Long-term goals can only be achieved with self-control. Indian cultural heritage offers us some powerful tools (like Roza or Vrata fasting and disassociation from material possessions) to help us learn self-control.
Self-regulation leads to self-control.Self-monitoring is quite high among those who are able to adapt their behaviour to the demands of the outside world.Self-regulation refers to “our ability to organise and monitor our own behaviour”.
Numerous psychological strategies for self-control have also been put forth. One of them is introspection or observation of one’s own behaviour. This gives us the essential knowledge we need to alter, improve, or enhance particular facets of ourselves.
Self-reinforcement is another technique. This involves rewarding behaviours that have pleasant outcomes.The use of self-reinforcement is another method. This entails rewarding actions that provide pleasing results.
The third method is self-instruction. We frequently give ourselves instructions on how to act and behave. Self-regulation is greatly facilitated by such guidelines.
These strategies have been evaluated and shown to be fairly helpful in terms of self-control and self-regulation.
3.) How do you define personality? What are the main approaches to the study of personality?
The name “personality” comes from the Latin term “PERSONA,” which means “mask” frequently used by those who perform in theatres. Romans use the word “persona” to describe how someone seems, not how they truly are.
The term “personality” refers to the totality of a person’s behaviors and interactionsthat an individual has with others in their surroundings. According to Allport,
‘Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine his unique adjustment to the environment’.
Major Approaches to the Study of Personality
The concept of personality is incredibly complex. Psychologists aid us in understanding the study of personality by offering solutions to some of our fundamental issues, such as why do some people behave differently in the same settings as others? Why do some people like being indoors while others would rather take risks and be in hazardous or exciting situations? Do these disparities remain throughout a person’s life? They try to explore the characteristics of different personalities and v. In order to comprehend, justify, and forecast the similarities and differences, consistencies and inconsistencies, stabilities and instabilities, or changes in behaviour, the study of personality makes these efforts. As a result, several viewpoints on personality in the context of an individual’s entire behaviour have emerged. These perspectives give diverse conceptions of the human person and differ in the focus placed on the “what,” “why,” and “how” of behaviour. Some characteristics of personality are illuminated by each of these models, but not all of them.
Some of the most prominent approaches of personality are,
- Trait Approach
- Type approach
- Psychodynamic Approach
- Post-Freudian Approach
- Behavioral Approach
- Humanistic Approach
- Cultural Approach
4.) What is trait approach to personality? How does it differ from type approach?
A trait is defined as a persistent characteristic or feature that distinguishes one person from another. They consist of a variety of potential behaviours that might be employed depending on the needs of the circumstance. The intensities and permutations of traits differ from person to person, resulting in individual variances in personality. Traits are typically constant across settings and reasonably stable through time.
These theories are largely concerned with defining or characterising the core components of personality. They search for the “building blocks.” Humans have a wide range of psychological qualities, however they may be classified into fewer categories of personality traits. The attribute approach is similar to what we frequently experience in daily life. For instance, when we hear that a person is sociable, we assume that in addition to being cooperative, pleasant, and helpful, s/he will engage in behaviours that involve extra social components. The trait technique aims to identify an individual’s core characteristics. Some of the famous trait theories are,
- Allport’s Trait Theory
- Cattell: Personality Factors
- Eysenck’s Theory
Difference between Type and Trait approach
In an effort to comprehend human personality, type techniques explore for broad patterns in the observable behavioural qualities of individuals. People are categorised according to how closely their behaviours adhere to each behavioural pattern’s designated category. On the other hand, the trait approach focuses on the particular psychological characteristics that tend to distinguish persons in consistent and reliable ways. One person may be kinder than another while another may be more reserved. One individual could be less shy than another, as example. To assess an individual’s level of the existence or absence of the pertinent behavioural characteristic or feature, the qualities “shyness” and “friendliness” are utilised.
5.) How does Freud explain the structure of personality?
The id, ego, and superego are the three main structural components of personality, according to Freud’s theory. They may be deduced from how people act because they exist as forces in the unconscious. Keep in mind that the id, ego, and superego are only ideas and not actual physical structures.
Id: It is where a person’s innate vitality comes from. The instant fulfilment of primal cravings, sexual inclinations, and violent urges are discussed. The pleasure principle, which presupposes that individuals seek pleasure and attempt to avoid suffering, is what makes it operate. Freud believed that the majority of an individual’s instinctive energy was sexual and the remainder was hostile. Id has no regard for moral principles, society, or other people.
Ego: It originates from id and aims to meet a person’s primal desires in line with reality. It operates according to the reality principle and frequently guides the id toward more acceptable behaviours. For instance, a boy’s id instructs him to take the ice cream cone he desires and consume it. His ego warns him that he can be penalised if he takes the cone without asking. Based on the true principle, the youngster understands that asking for permission to eat the cone is the greatest way to feel satisfied. Therefore, the ego is patient, and rational, and operates by the reality principle, whereas the id is demanding, and unrealistic, and operates according to the pleasure principle.
Superego: The moral branch of mental functioning is the best approach to conceptualise the superego. The superego informs the id and ego if satisfaction in a specific situation is morally acceptable. Through the process of socialisation, it internalises the parental authority, which aids in id control. For instance, a boy’s superego would tell him that his actions are ethically right if he sees and desires an ice cream cone and asks his mother for it. This method of getting the ice cream won’t make the boy feel guilty, afraid, or anxious.
6.) How would Horney’s explanation of depression be different from that of Alfred Adler?
With an emphasis on self-realization and human growth, Horney was given a more idealistic viewpoint on human life. She claims that when a parent’s behaviour toward their child is uncaring, unsupportive, or inconsistent, children feel unsteady and develop a sense of general unease. The result of the built up essential tension is a more profound contempt for the parent and a profound unease or basic hostility. Extreme favouritism and remoteness, as well as providing little or a lot of support, are bad because they encourage children to feel inferior and weak, interfering with their mental health.
Alfred Adler, on the other hand, focuses on specific brain studies and attributes sadness to the sense of guilt and insufficiency that develops inside the person as a result of their inability to achieve their own goals. These goals help people feel as though everything is okay and are crucial for overcoming feelings of helplessness and lack. If someone is incapable of achieving these goals, they will likely display signs of mediocrity in a way that discourages others.
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7.) What is the main proposition of humanistic approach to personality? What did Maslow mean by self-actualisation?
Humanistic theories focused on the moral obligation and consequences of people’s attitudes, feelings, and convictions, particularly with regard to themselves. Self-actualization, according to Maslow, is the condition in which people have reached their entire potential.
The concept of a fully functional individual is the most significant one Rogers put out. He argues that the driving element behind personality development is fulfilment. People strive to the utmost degree possible to express their capacities, potentials, and talents. People have a predisposition that drives them to realise their innate nature. Regarding how people behave, Rogers has two fundamental presumptions. One is that the behaviour is worthwhile and goal-directed. The second is that individuals (who are intrinsically good) nearly always decide to operate in an adaptable, self-actualizing manner.
Maslow provides a thorough description of psychologically well individuals in terms of their achievement of self-actualization, a condition in which individuals have realised their full potential. Maslow had a hopeful and upbeat perspective of man, believing that he is capable of experiencing love, joy, and the ability to be creative. People are seen to be capable of choosing how to live and how to fulfil their potential. Analyzing the driving forces behind our behaviour makes self-actualization feasible. We are aware that biological, security, and belongingness needs—also known as survival needs—are present in both humans and other animals. Therefore, when a person’s wants are their only priority, it lowers them to the status of an animal. The quest for self-worth and self-actualization is the beginning of the genuine journey of the human existence.
8.) Discuss the main observational methods used in personality assessment. What problems do we face in using these methods?
One technique that is frequently utilised for personality evaluation is behavioural observation. Despite the fact that we all see individuals and make opinions about their personalities, using observation for personality evaluation is a complex process that requires special training. For the purpose of determining a person’s personality, a meticulous training of the observer and a reasonably thorough set of guidelines about behaviour analysis are required. A clinical psychologist could, for instance, enjoy seeing how their client interacts with family members and house guests. The clinical psychologist may learn a lot about a client’s personality through properly planned observation. Observations can be of various kinds,
Non-participant observation entails keeping a distance and watching the subject or event. The observer could merge with the group being watched.
The observer who becomes a member of the class or group being observed is considered as participant observation. In doing so, the spectator makes an attempt to establish a rapport with the group so that they would start to accept him as one of their own.
Despite being widely used and often employed, observation methods have the following drawbacks:
(1) The professional expertise needed to obtain good data using these approaches is time- and labour-intensive.
(2) The psychologist must be mature in order to use these strategies to collect reliable data.
(3) The results might be tainted by the observer’s mere presence. Because they are a stranger, the observer could sway the subject’s behaviour, resulting in inaccurate statistics.
9.) What is meant by structured personality tests? Which are the two most widely used structured personality tests?
Allport made the argument that asking someone about themselves is the best way to evaluate them. Self-report measures were used as a result of this. Subjects are required to provide verbal replies using some sort of rating scale for these very organised tests, which are frequently based on theory. The technique calls for the individual to honestly describe how they feel about numerous things. The replies are taken at their word. They receive a quantitative score, which is then interpreted using test-specific norms.
a) The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
This questionnaire is frequently used in personality assessments. This exam was created by Hathaway and McKinley to aid in psychiatric diagnosis, but it has since been proved to be quite useful in recognising different types of psychopathology. The updated version is offered as MMPI-2. There are 567 statements in all. Each assertion must be evaluated by the subject as “true” or “false” for them. The exam is broken down into 10 subscales that aim to identify social reticence, despair, hysteria, psychopathic deviance, masculinity-femininity, paranoia, psychasthenia, and depression. Mallick and Joshi created the Jodhpur Multiphasic Personality Inventory (JMPI) in India in the same vein as the MMPI.
b) Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ)
This test, which was created by Eysenck, first evaluated two personality traits: introverted-extraverted and emotionally stable-emotionally unstable. The 32 personality qualities that make up these dimensions. Later, psychoticism, a third dimension, was introduced by Eysenck. It is associated with psychopathology, which is characterised by a lack of empathy for others, a rough demeanour while engaging with others, and a propensity to disregard social norms. An individual with a high score in this area is likely to be angry, egotistical, and antisocial. This test is also often employed.
10.) Explain how projective techniques assess personality. Which projective tests of personality are widely used by psychologists?
To evaluate unconsciously held beliefs and motives, projective techniques were created. These methods are predicated on the idea that an individual would be able to project his or her feelings, wants, and requirements onto an unstructured or less organised stimuli or setting. Professionals interpret these forecasts. There are several projective techniques that have been created; they evaluate personality using a range of stimuli and scenarios. Some of them include composing stories based on photographs, some demand sentence completions, some require sketching emotion, others require choosing stimuli from a vast pool of stimuli, and some require reporting correlations with stimuli (such words or inkblots). Although the kind of stimuli and reactions used in these strategies vary greatly, they all have the following characteristics in common:
(1) The stimuli are vaguely defined and mostly unstructured.
(2) The objective of the evaluation, the procedure for scoring, and the interpretation are often kept a secret from the individual being evaluated.
(3) It is explained to the subject that there are no right or wrong answers.
(4) It is believed that each response reveals an important component of personality.
(5) Scoring and interpretation are time-consuming and occasionally arbitrary.
There are several ways in which projective techniques differ from psychometric exams. They are impossible to grade objectively. They typically call for qualitative evaluations, which demand intensive training.
Some of the projective tests of personality which are widely used by psychologists are,
- The Rorschach Inkblot Test
- The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
- Rosenzweig’s Picture-Frustration Study (P-F Study)
- Sentence Completion Test
- Draw-a-Person Test
11.) Arihant wants to become a singer even though he belongs to a family of doctors. Though his family members claim to love him but strongly disapprove his choice of career. Using Carl Rogers’ terminology, describe the attitudes shown by Arihant’s family.
The phrase “unconditional positive regard” used by Carl Rogers is crucial.
Arihant’s desire to become an artist is in opposition to his family’s wishes, and this causes a zone of unfavourable social circumstances that will reduce his level of confidence. He could think that his inability to accomplish his goal would prevent him from developing into a “fully functional individual.” To him, the decision to become a vocalist in defiance of his family’s wishes resembles a misconception that has the power to either create him or destroy him. As a result, due to familial pressure, his “ideal self” includes him as a singer, in contrast to his “real self,” who is not an artist.
Despondency develops when there is a discrepancy between the real and ideal selves. Arihant believes that there must always be a pleasant atmosphere that includes warmth, compassion, and sympathy regardless of other factors. Consequently, in Rogers’ view, when someone reaches their own tremendous positive potential, they may attain self-completion. His inability to pursue singing due to the pressure of his family would prevent him from achieving self-fulfilment at any point in his life and will also harm his mental health and prosperity.
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