NCERT Solutions Class 11 Psychology Chapter 6 Learning
NCERT Solutions Class 11 Psychology Chapter 6 Learning : National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) Class 11 Psychology Chapter 6 Solutions – Learning .
Board |
NCERT |
Class |
11 |
Subject |
Psychology |
Chapter |
6 |
Chapter Name |
Learning |
Topic |
Exercise Solutions |
Review Questions
1.) What is learning? What are its distinguishing features?
The process of learning is essential to human behaviour. It alludes to a variety of adjustments that happen as a result of experience. Learning is “any relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential produced by experience,” according to one definition. Learning is exemplified by changes brought about by experience and practice that are comparatively stable.
Features of Learning
Learning is a process with various distinctive characteristics.
- First of all, learning need experience of some kind. Often times, we see an event take place in a particular order. After an event happens, a certain number of further events might follow.
- Changes in behaviour brought on by learning typically persist a long time. They must be distinguished from behavioural shifts that cannot be taught or sustained.
- Learning is a process that happens implicitly as opposed to performance. Performance refers to a behaviour, response, or activity that is seen.
2.) How does classical conditioning demonstrate learning by association?
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Research on this type of learning was pioneered by Ivan P. Pavlov. The physiology of the digestive system was his area of greatest interest. According to his study, the moment the dogs employed in his experiments were aware of the empty plate on which food was being given, their salivation started. Saliva is naturally expelled in response to the presence of food or other oral items.
Pavlov created a test to understand this process. A dog was originally kept in a box while being tied. The canine was left alone in the crate for some time. During a few days, this was repeated several times. In the meanwhile, a fast operation was carried out, including the placement of one end of a tube in the dog’s jaw and the other end in a measuring glass. For the second part of the experiment, the dog was kept famished, and a tube was connected to its harness with one end terminating in its mouth and the other ending in a glass jar. An unconditioned reaction (UR) to the unconditioned stimulus(US) of a bell was salivation . As soon as the bell rang, following training, salivation started to happen. The bell acts as a conditional stimulus(CS), and saliva production as a conditional reaction (CR).It is referred to as “classical conditioning.” It is evident that learning happens in classical conditioning under the conditions known as S-S learning, when one stimulus (such as the ringing of a bell) acts as a signal for another stimulus (food). As a result, one stimulus implies the possibility of another stimulation.
3.) Define operant conditioning. Discuss the factors that influence the course of operant conditioning.
OPERANT/INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING
B.F. Skinner was the first to study this form of conditioning. As an organism interacts with its environment, voluntary reactions are often observed, according to SkinnerOperants are actions or reactions that people or animals choose to do willingly and are in control of. Because the organism interacts with its surroundings, the word operant is utilised. Operant conditioning is the process of conditioning operant behaviour.
Factors influencing Operant Learning-
Types of Reinforcement:
Positive or negative reinforcement are both possible. Stimuli that result in positive reinforcement are those that are enjoyable. They support and perpetuate the reactions that brought about them. Positive reinforcers meet wants such as those for food, water, accolades, money, prestige, and information. The sensations that serve as negative reinforcers are unpleasant and painful. Negative reinforcement is produced by reactions that cause organisms to either ignore or retreat from painful stimuli. Negative reinforcement teaches avoidance and escape behaviours as a result.
Number of Reinforcement and other Features:
It is the quantity of trials when an organism has received reinforcement or reward. The quantity of reinforcement refers to how much of a rewarding stimulus (food, drink, or the degree of a pain-inducing substance) a person receives across each trial. The type of reinforcer is referred to as the reinforcement’s quality.
Schedules of Reinforcement:
The planning of reinforcement administration during conditioning sessions is known as a reinforcement schedule. The progression of conditioning is influenced differently by each reinforcement schedule, and as a result, conditioned responses take on diverse properties. The organism undergoing operant conditioning may get reinforcement in each acquisition trial, in select trials only, or not at all. The reinforcing might therefore be ongoing or spotty.
Delayed Reinforcement:
Delay in the onset of reinforcement has a significant impact on its efficacy. It has been discovered that decreased performance results from reinforcement supply delays.
4.) A good role model is very important for a growing up child. Discuss the kind of learning that supports it.
A good role model is crucial for a child’s development since youngsters learn social skills and develop personality traits by watching and imitating adults. In several experimental research, Bandura and his associates have explored observational learning.
People acquire social behaviours as a result of this type of learning, which is also known as social learning. There are many circumstances where people are unsure about how to respond. They adopt the behaviours of others and pick up cues from them.
Modeling is the term for this type of learning.
While performance is influenced by the model’s behaviour, observers learn by seeing it in observational learning, where the model’s behaviour is either rewarded or punished.
Children learn most social behaviours by seeing and copying adults. By seeing how others conduct themselves in public and how they dress and arrange their hair, one might learn social graces. It has also been shown that young children can develop diverse personality traits through observational learning. Students that use this kind of instruction might pick up hostility, social incompetence, courtesies, politeness, persistence, and lethargy.
5.) Explain the procedures for studying verbal learning.
1.) Paired-Associates Learning : This method is comparable to S-S conditioning and S-R learning. It is used while studying the translations of some words from one’s home tongue into another. The first step is to construct a list of paired-associates. The pair’s first word acts as the stimulus, and the second word as the response. There may be one or two members of each couple who are monolingual.
The first components of the pairs are absurd syllables (consonantvowel-consonant), whereas the second components are English nouns (stimulus word) (response term). The learner is first given both of the stimulus-response pairings simultaneously, and after each stimulus word has been provided, they are instructed to remember and recall the response. The next step is a learning trial. Each stimulus word is provided one at a time, and the subject makes an effort to respond with the proper sentence. Failure results in the display of the solution word. On one occasion throughout each trial, the stimulus phrase is shown. Attempts are made again and again until the person answers each inquiry properly. As a measure of paired-associates learning, the number of trials necessary to achieve the criterion successfully is used.
2.) Serial Learning : Researchers may get additional insight into participants’ acquisition of lists of verbal items and the processes involved by employing this verbal learning approach. At the beginning, lists of linguistic items are made, such as meaningless syllables, words you recognise most and least, related phrases, etc. The participant is given the entire list, and they are required to produce the items in the serial order of the list. The participant must provide the second item after the first item on the list is shown in the first trial. In the event that the participant does not finish this activity in the allowed time, the experimenter presents the second item. The participant must now generate the third item, which is the response word, as this item is now the stimulus. If the participant fails, the experimenter provides the right object, which serves as the stimulus for the fourth word. The serial anticipation technique is the name of this process. Learning trials go on until the individual correctly guesses every item in the prescribed order.
3.) Free Recall : Participants are given a list of words to read aloud as part of this technique. Each sentence is presented for a certain amount of time. The words are shown to the participants, and they are then told to recall them in whatever sequence they can recall. Both related and unrelated words are included in the list. The list contains a number of words that exceed ten. Each trial’s presentation of the words is different. With the use of this technique, researchers can see how people organise the words they remember. According to studies, the things that are placed at the start or end of the list are easier to recall than the ones that are placed in the middle, which are more challenging.
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6.) What is a skill? What are the stages through which skill learning develops?
A skill is described as the capacity to carry out a difficult activity effectively and effortlessly, such as driving a car or writing. A skill is made up of a series of perceptual motor reactions or S-R connections, such as the movement of the legs, feet, and toes, among other things.
According to Fitts, there are three phases in the development of a skill:
Cognitive Phase: The learner must comprehend and retain the instructions during the cognitive phase of skill acquisition. The student has to comprehend how the work should be completed. Every external cue, instructional demand, and response consequence must be kept in mind throughout this period.
Associative Phase: It is necessary to connect various sensory inputs or stimuli with the proper reactions. More practise leads to fewer mistakes, better performance, and a shorter turnaround time.
Autonomous Phase: Performance undergoes two significant adjustments. The associative phase’s attentional needs lessen. Externally generated inference is diminished. Ultimately, with little to no conscious effort required, expert performance reaches automaticity.
7.) How can you distinguish between generalisation and discrimination?
The generalisation and discrimination processes occur in all learning processes. Yet they have nonetheless been the subject of a lot of research in the context of conditioning. The act of consistently responding to comparable stimuli is known as generalisation. Generalization is the occurrence or beginning of a learned response to a fresh stimulus.
In contrast to discrimination, which is a response to difference, generalisation results from similarity. Generalization was the root of the lack of discrimination. The organism’s ability to discriminate or learn to discriminate has an impact on the discriminative response.
8.) How does transfer of learning takes place?
The impacts of past knowledge on new knowledge are referred to as transfer of learning.
When prior learning aids in current learning, it is seen as advantageous. If the new learning is sluggish, on the other hand, it is seen negatively. Both general and specialised transfers are used to make it happen.
General transfer suggests that past knowledge makes it easier to acquire new material. The student is prepared to learn the following assignment more easily after completing the previous one. This warming-up effect lasts longer than a single learning session.
Every type of learning is made up of a succession of connections between stimuli and responses, which is known as specific transfer. It refers to how learning an earlier task impacts learning a subsequent activity. The degree to which the first learning tasks and the subsequent task are similar or distinct determines the type of transfer that will occur.
9.) Why is motivation a prerequisite for learning?
Motivation is seen as a requirement and serves as the primary learning facilitator.
It is a mental and physiological condition that prompts an organism to respond in order to meet the immediate need.
An organism is motivated to behave forcefully in order to achieve some objective, and such sets remain until the need is met and the goal is realised.
For instance: You put forth more effort to study when you are more driven.
Learning motivation comes from two different places:
Intrinsic motivation: One may be motivated to learn new things for enjoyment or as a method of achieving other objectives.
Extrinsic motivation: Throughout the session, one learns new skills and knowledge that may assist them later on in life get a decent career.
10.) What does the notion of preparedness for learning mean?
The ideal way to think of preparation is as a continuous dimension or spectrum, with the learning activities for which individuals of a specific species are completely unprepared and unable to learn on one end and the learning tasks or associations that they can easily learn on the other. The relationships and activities that the participants are neither unprepared for nor prepared for fall in the centre of the spectrum. They can do these goals, but it will require a lot of effort and perseverance.
11.) Explain the different forms of cognitive learning?
The various types of cognitive learning include:
Insight Learning
In a traditional experiment in insight learning, an issue is first given, followed by what seems to be inaction, and then, at last, a solution arrives out of nowhere. Unexpected solutions frequently occur as knowledge increases. You should utilise the solution as soon as it is provided in case the issue recurs. This makes it evident that what is learnt is a cognitive relationship between a technique and an aim as opposed to a particular set of conditioned correlations between inputs and responses. As a result, insight learning may be applied to several instances of the same kinds of problems.
Latent Learning
Latent learning refers to a different category of cognitive learning. Because there is no motivation to do so, latent learning occurs when a new behaviour is picked up but not yet displayed. The idea of latent learning was developed in large part because to Tolman.
12.) How can we identify students with learning disabilities?
The prevalent signs of learning disabilities in pupils can be used to identify them. They are listed below:
(i) They have trouble speaking and have trouble reading and writing letters, words, and sentences. They experience hearing issues but no auditory defects.
(ii) They have concentration difficulties and are easily distracted, which causes them to be hyperactive.
(iii) Their sense of time and spatial orientation are both deficient. They often experience trouble orienting themselves in unfamiliar settings and a sense of loss. They struggle to follow instructions and make incorrect judgements about right, left, up, and down.
(iv) The motor coordination and manual dexterity of these kids are lacking.
(v) They are unable to comprehend and comply with spoken instructions.
(vi) They misinterpret different body language and underestimate the connections between friendly and unfriendly peers.
(vii) They exhibit perceptual abnormalities, including kinesthetic, visual, auditory, and tactual misperception.
(viii) Many children with learning disabilities have dyslexia, which prevents them from learning to copy letters and words and organise verbal information
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